Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'Ambiente - Tesi di Dottorato

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Questa collezione raccoglie le Tesi di Dottorato afferenti al Dipartimento di Ingegneria per l'Ambiente e il Territorio e Ingegneria Chimica dell'Università della Calabria.

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Innovative UV-LED polymerised bicontinuous microemulsion coating for membranes with special emphasis on MBRs
(2017-07-11) Schmidt, Slefan-André; Pantano, Pietro; Curcio, Efrem; Gabriele, Bartolo; Figoli, Alberto
The main objective of this work is the preparation of polymerisable bicontinuous microemulsion (PBM) coatings applied onto commercial membranes for improving the anti-fouling properties and performance, in terms of water flux and foulants rejection. Microstructured and nanostructured materials obtained by PBM have been widely investigated in the course of the last 30 years. The interest in microemulsion lies mainly in the possibility of dissolving larger amounts of oil and water by using polymerisable and non-polymerisable surfactants. By polymerising the bicontinuous microemulsion it is possible to produce transparent porous polymeric solids [Gan et al. (1995), Gan and Chew (1997)]. This thesis represents the follow-up of the work done by Galiano et al. (2015) and Deowan et al. (2016). Galiano et al. (2015) developed the PBM composition that based on a non-polymerisable surfactant (DTAB) and another polymerisable surfactant (AUTEAB). In their work the PBM was polymerised by redox initiators leading to a process that is very difficult to up-scale for a commercial application. Critical issues were, the polymerisation time (at least 20 minutes), and the reproducibility of the coating. Therefore, it is the aim of this work to develop another polymerisation technique that increases the polymerisation speed and allows the easy reproduction of membranes with defined properties. The polymerisation by photoinitiators excited by UV-light represents a promising possibility for this requirement as it has the potential of decreasing the polymerisation time down to a few seconds. Several photoinitiators were selected for their compatibility with the PBM, and studied for their conversion rate efficiency (section 5.1.5). As there is a wide range of potential UV-light sources available, several technologies are studied for their coating performance (section 5.1.3). Subsequent to that, experiments were done in order to define the ideal photoinitiator type and concentration while polymerising onto glass plates. The coating onto commercial membranes is studied deeply for e.g. different casting knife thickness or ambient temperature (section 5.2.2 As the polymerisation under inert conditions is expected to increase the polymerisation speed, experiments are done, both under inert and non-inert conditions. The final membrane, coated under the optimum conditions, is further characterised for their permeability under different conditions like transmembrane pressure (TMP), model foulant experiments and a fixed volume flow (section 5.2.3). Further characterisation is done by contact angle, SEM, AFM (section 5.2.5 to 5.2.7). The prepared PBM membranes are foreseen to be finally applied for model textile dye wastewater treatment by Membrane BioReactor (MBR) technology. According to the previous results of Deowan et al. (2016) higher permeate quality through increased COD, TOC, dyestuffs removal efficiency and stronger anti-fouling properties are expected. Consequently, lower operation/maintenance costs due to reduced necessary aeration for scouring purposes and reduced membrane cleaning cycles as well as less membrane replacement are of special interest for commercial applications. In the previous work of Deowan et al. (2016) a lab scaled MBR with a single membrane housing was used. As of the biocenosis of the bacteria inside the reactor tank, a comparison of the membrane performance of the PBM and commercial membrane is difficult to achieve. Therefore an existing MBR system was redesigned to allow the simultaneous run of a commercial and a PBM coated membrane (section 4.1). As the revamp requires also additional sensors, the data acquisition needs to be adapted as well. To assure the proper function of the MBR the system was running for long term with two commercial membranes using a model textile wastewater (see 5.3.2). Finally the PBM coated membrane was compared with a commercial one for their performance in the MBR. Initial experiments for the water permeability are done as preparation for future work (see 5.3.3).
Dynamic operation and control of cell culture environments in bioreactors for bioartificial liver application
(2017-07-11) Naghib, Seyed Danial; Pantano, Pietro; Di Renzo, Alberto; Curcio, Efrem; Di Maio, Francesco Paolo; De Bartolo, Loredana
On the global scale, liver diseases are severe public health problems, with the incidences of end-stage liver disease (ESLD) rising annually. Isolated hepatocytes represent a good model of liver metabolism because they are able to perform the full range of functions. In recent years, biochemical and biotechnological engineering have been applied to the culture of human and animal hepatocyte cells, which requires the design, operation, and control of complex appropriate bioreactors. In this work, the predictable, stable and durable operation of two types of bioartificial reactors for cell cultures is investigated. The thesis is divided into the following two parts. Part I: Fluidized bed bioreactor Fluidized-bed-based biomedical devices acting as bioartificial liver, in which cells are trapped and encapsulated into appropriated fluidized beads, have proved effective solutions to many respects. However, the bioreactor performance is significantly affected by the hydrodynamics and mass transfer, not well characterized yet for most aspects. In the present work, the intrinsic and fluidization properties of alginate beads as encapsulation medium for hepatic cells are carefully analyzed experimentally using two rigs at different scales. Appropriate alginate beads were prepared and characterized in terms of size distribution and density. Expansion properties were evaluated for free alginate beads (i.e. without hepatic cells) using saline (Ringer) solutions as fluidization medium. Bed expansion tests over a wide range of voidage values have been conducted in a 1-cm diameter column, used for perfusion during in vitro experiments, as well as in a 10-cm diameter column close to human size bioreactor, in the latter case at two temperatures: ambient (20°C) and human body (37°C) conditions. Full fluid-dynamic characterization of the alginate beads is conducted, including expansion data, terminal velocity measurements, and velocity-voidage plots and their elaboration in terms of Richardson-Zaki parameters. Part II: Hollow fiber membrane bioreactor Due to their structure affine to the physiological environment in vivo, hollow fibre membrane bioreactors in crossed configuration can provide favourable conditions for the cell behaviour and metabolism. Specific devices have been proposed in recent years with very promising potential for applications. To be able to develop bioartificial systems that operate effectively and for the long term, in addition to handling the biological complexities, fluid dynamics and transport phenomena require an advance model, careful control, and appropriate automation strategies. Tight control of the culturing environment and strategies for dealing with some inherently unsteady changes of conditions in a membrane bioreactor is investigated by developing and implementing a new hydrodynamic dual control system for an existing bioreactor prototype. The experimental implementation of the sensors-controllers-actuators system is complemented by the development of a transient mathematical model of the instrumented bioreactor, in which the membrane unit is treated as a three-compartment model. A four-input/seven-state transient model of the bioreactor is obtained, able to describe the time evolution of the flowrates, the extra-capillary space liquid level and the oxygen concentration across the system. The selection of appropriate sensors and the manipulated control variables is discussed. Bioreactor dynamic simulation and control is carried out within the Matlab/Simulink environment and Matlab is also used as a platform for the experimental data digital acquisition and control logic implementation (e.g. controller tuning), allowing both for flexibility with testing of different control schemes and for direct comparison of simulated and experimental values. Different experiments with selected input changes were carried out under idealized conditions and using water as perfusing medium. The applied stimuli served to mimick causes of previously observed bioreactor malfunctions (e.g. high sensitivity to liquid level variations during prolonged cell culturing experiments) and check the control system efficacy and efficiency. Finally, the developed control system is utilized during a prolonged experiment of multi-cell culture within the membrane bioreactor, demonstrating the reliable, continuous and successful cultivation for nearly one month time. The set of results collected during the present work allows to achieve new insight into the operation and reliability of bioreactors for application as bioartificial devices, by improving the capacity to predict their behaviour and better design their structure as well as by enhancing the control over the cell culture environment conditions
Development of Tailored Hydrogel Composite Membranes for Application in Membrane Contactors
(2017-07-11) Majidi Salehi, Shabnam; Pantano, Pietro; Curcio, Efrem; Di Profio, Gianluca; Fontananova, Enrica
This work was performed during the period from November 2013 to May 2015 in the Institute on Membrane Technology (ITM-CNR) at the University of Calabria (UNICAL), under supervision of Prof. Efrem Curcio, Dr. Gianluca Di Profio and Dr. Enrica Fontananova, from May 2015 to December 2015 at Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), under supervision of Prof. Joao Crespo and from March 2016 to September 2016 at the University of Chemistry and Technology (ICT) Prague, under supervision of Dr. Eng. Vlastmil Fila. The main objective of this study was to design and develop tailored hydrogel composite membranes for application in membrane contactors, in particular, membrane distillation and membrane crystallization. Among various methods for membrane surface functionalization, surface photo-initiated graft polymerization technique (at UNICAL) and surface coating by incorporating nanoparticles (at UNL) were investigated to fabricate tailored hydrogel composite membranes In the first year at the University of Calabria, various hydrogel composite membranes were prepared by using photo-initiated polymerization method. The possibility of fine tuning the porosity and the chemical nature of hydrogels, were implemented with the preparation of composites containing diverse hydrogel components (monomer and cross-linker) and ratio among them. The selection of hydrogel components was based on the possibility to obtain homogeneous and stable composites by using specific polymeric porous membranes as supports. The resulting composite membranes were characterized by electron scanning microscopy, surface chemistry analysis, swelling degree, ion exchange capacity and water contact angle measurements Furthermore, virgin and hydrogel composite membranes were used in membrane distillation and crystallization experiments and the performance improvement was evaluated. As a result, higher water-transfer flux and enhanced ion rejection than traditional MD membranes was observed in MD treatment of saline solutions. When such HCMs used in membrane assisted crystallization of carbonate calcium (biomineralization), a wide range of crystal morphologies, most of them displaying a polycrystalline or mesocrystalline structure, was obtained in a great variety of experimental conditions. We demonstrated that this composite provides the opportunity to fine control the delivery of additives to the gel network through the porous structure of both support membrane and hydrogel layer, thus affecting crystallization kinetics, and crystal morphologies In the second year of the study at Universidade Nova de Lisboa, hydrogel composite membranes with tailored surface roughness and patterning were designed to examine the influence of the topography of such composite membranes on the growth of protein crystals. Iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) were used as topographical designers providing a good control of membrane surface roughness and patterning. Surface morphology and topography of the prepared membranes were characterized using electron scanning microscopy, profilometry analysis and contact angle measurements. Finally, their performance was evaluated in the crystallization of Lysozyme used as a model protein and the effect of surface chemistry and topography on the heterogeneous nucleation of lysozyme crystals was investigated. We demonstrated that roughness influences crystallization, but we also show that excessive roughness may be deleterious, since it increases the number of crystals formed at the expenses of crystal size. Therefore, there is an optimum value of roughness for the formation of a low number of well-faced crystals with a larger size In the third year at the University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, the modeling of membrane crystallization was studied. The main goal of this work was to develop general model of membrane crystallization process. The development of this model involved the fundamental theories and models in membrane process and crystallization engineering, especially the models described the mass and heat transfers in membrane module and the crystal size distribution (CSD) determined by both nucleation and crystal growth processes based on the concept of the population balance equation. The experimental results of this study, allows to achieve new insight to fabricate and develop the novel hydrogel composite membranes with proper properties and novel functionality for application in membrane distillation and membrane crystallization processes
Mass and momentum transfer in membrane-based bioartificial liver systems
(2017-07-11) Khakpour, Shervin; Pantano, Pietro; De Bartolo, Loredana; Curcio, Efrem
Liver failure, caused by acute or chronic end-stage liver disease (ESLD) imposes a significant disease burden worldwide. Chronic liver disease and cirrhosis is ranked as 12th cause of death in the United States and 4th in middle-aged adults. Researchers in Mayo Clinic report liver-related mortality as 8th by using a more comprehensive definition accounting for other aspects of liver disease as well. Currently, liver transplantation remains the conventional treatment for ESLD as the only medically proven method to promote patient’s health. To avoid the problem of inadequate donor organs and yet provide a comprehensive range of liver functions, cell-based therapies have been actively under investigation to potentially provide a substitute for transplantation, or a temporary support for liver failure patients. Studies on the latter aim has led to development of extracorporeal bioartificial liver (BAL) devices. Hepatic cell cultures are exploited for different applications in liver disease studies, drug toxicity testing, and bioartificial liver (BAL) devices. However, development of such systems is often hindered by the peculiar characteristics and intricate requirements of primary hepatocytes, challenging their prolonged functionality and viability in vitro. Despite the development of various 3D cell culture systems using perfused bioreactors, mass transfer properties still remain a critical and controversial topic, especially oxygen supply as the limiting and modulating factor The aim of this work is to enhance and optimize a prototype hollow fiber membrane bioreactor (HFMBR) providing efficient mass transfer for nutrient provision and catabolite removal, promoting prolonged viability and functionality of hepatocytes. In this bioreactor, two bundles of hollow fibers are employed in a crossed configuration: one bundle for supplying the oxygenated medium, and the other for removing the medium from the extra-capillary space. Optimization of the operational culture conditions to enforce an in vivo-like microenvironment is an intrinsic part of the process that requires a clear understanding of the in vitro cellular microenvironment. Oxygen transport in a convection-enhanced, crossed-configuration HFMBR hosting hepatocyte spheroids was investigated through mass transfer modelling using COMSOL Multiphysics®, a specialized, commercial finite-element software. The permeability of hollow fibers (hydraulic, albumin solution) was evaluated experimentally, showing significant, irreversible decrease in the permeance of the membranes due to protein absorption during culture period. Bioreactor’s hydrodynamics was investigated through residence time distribution analysis, by which a portion of the bioreactor was diagnosed as stagnant region. Finally, oxygen diffusion through the medium and the effect of different conditionings on the oxygen sensor’s readings in multi-well plates were studied. Mass transfer in static culture systems – both as a monolayer and as spheroids – was evaluated using a diffusion-reaction model numerically solved for oxygen (steady-state study) and urea (time-dependent study). In addition to the size and number of spheroids, sufficiency of oxygen supply to cells also depended on their distribution (the distance between them) and the amount of culture medium in each well. A convection-diffusion-reaction time distribution analysis, by which a portion of the bioreactor was diagnosed as stagnant region. Finally, oxygen diffusion through the medium and the effect of different conditionings on the oxygen sensor’s readings in multi-well plates were studied. Mass transfer in static culture systems – both as a monolayer and as spheroids – was evaluated using a diffusion-reaction model numerically solved for oxygen (steady-state study) and urea (time-dependent study). In addition to the size and number of spheroids, sufficiency of oxygen supply to cells also depended on their distribution (the distance between them) and the amount of culture medium in each well. A convection-diffusion-reaction time distribution analysis, by which a portion of the bioreactor was diagnosed as stagnant region. Finally, oxygen diffusion through the medium and the effect of different conditionings on the oxygen sensor’s readings in multi-well plates were studied. Mass transfer in static culture systems – both as a monolayer and as spheroids – was evaluated using a diffusion-reaction model numerically solved for oxygen (steady-state study) and urea (time-dependent study). In addition to the size and number of spheroids, sufficiency of oxygen supply to cells also depended on their distribution (the distance between them) and the amount of culture medium in each well. A convection-diffusion-reaction time distribution analysis, by which a portion of the bioreactor was diagnosed as stagnant region. Finally, oxygen diffusion through the medium and the effect of different conditionings on the oxygen sensor’s readings in multi-well plates were studied. Mass transfer in static culture systems – both as a monolayer and as spheroids – was evaluated using a diffusion-reaction model numerically solved for oxygen (steady-state study) and urea (time-dependent study). In addition to the size and number of spheroids, sufficiency of oxygen supply to cells also depended on their distribution (the distance between them) and the amount of culture medium in each well. A convection-diffusion-reaction model was developed to describe momentum and mass transfer in the bioreactor, in which the influential parameters were parametrized through implementation of applicable correlations. The model was numerically solved for two different types of geometries: (i) single-spheroid model using a periodic/symmetric unit cell within the bioreactor to locally represent the system decreasing the computational complexity of the model, (ii) miniaturized bioreactor model. The single-spheroid model was used to carry out a systematic parametric study to evaluate the effect of different parameters – oxygen tension (Co,sat), perfusion rate (QBR), hollow fiber spacing (δHF), spheroid diameter (Dsph), Michaelis-Menten kinetics for oxygen uptake (Vmax, Km) and porosities of the spheroid (εcc) and the membrane (εm) – on dissolved oxygen concentration (DOC) profile. Dimensionless numbers were defined for in-depth analysis of oxygen transfer and how each parameter can affect that. Among the operational conditions, Co,sat was found much more influential than QBR. Due to the mild advection added, the extra-spheroid resistances to diffusive mass transfer, i.e. the membrane (governed by εm) remains an important factor. However, εcc was found as a key intrinsic property strongly affecting intra-spheroid DOC profile. Maintaining physiological DOC range in large spheroids (Dsph=400μm) with different porosities was investigated in the single-spheroid model. Regulation of DOC profile was more manageable in spheroids with higher εcc, which lead to feasibility of achieving physiological oxygen concentrations. Low-porosity spheroids demonstrated a sharper concentration gradient, challenging sufficient oxygen supply to cells. Temporal shrinkage of spheroids due to rearrangement of cells changes the microstructure of the spheroid, the effect of which was numerically studied and proved to adversely affect the transport properties and consequently the DOC profile inside the spheroid. In the end, values from an experimental study were incorporated into the model to analyze the cellular microenvironment during the experiment, and the predictive capacity of the model regarding the outcome. Miniaturized bioreactor model was developed to reduce the computational cost while providing a more realistic model for the bioreactor. Another major advantage of this approach is capacitating investigation of the fluid dynamics inside the bioreactor. Notable DOC drop along the lumina of the supplying bundle was observed, consistent with the DOC gradient in the extra-capillary space along the supplying bundle. Having retentate flow in the hollow fibers significantly reduced these gradients and improved oxygen supply to the cells. Oxygen transfer was not noticeably affected by different flow patterns realized through using both bundles supplying or both removing the medium. However, minimization of the stagnant region had in fact a negative influence on oxygen supply. The miniaturized bioreactor model was also modified based on the experimental results for comparison with the single-spheroid model and the actual bioreactor, showing better compatibility with the real case.
Performance of hollow fiber membrane bioreactor as a bioartificial liver
(2017-07-11) Magdy Ahmed, Haysam Mohamed; Pantano, Pietro; De Bartolo, Loredana; Curcio, Efrem
C'è una crescente necessità di sviluppare un dispositivo bioartificiale di tipo epatico da utilizzare sia in applicazioni in vitro, per la sperimentazione della tossicità di molecole da parte delle aziende farmaceutiche, e sia in applicazioni cliniche per supportare pazienti con insufficienza epatica in attesa di trapianto di organo. A tale scopo è stato realizzato un bioreattore a membrana a fibre cave incrociate adoperante cellule epatiche umane in grado di favorire il mantenimento a lungo termine di epatociti. Il bioreattore è costituito da due fasci di membrane a fibre cave (HFM), uno deputato all’alimentazione e l’altro alla rimozione di cataboliti e prodotti specifici cellulari. I due fasci di fibre sono assemblati in una configurazione incrociata ed alternata in modo da stabilire una distanza l’una dall’altra di 250 μm. Questa configurazione del bioreattore delinea tre compartimenti separati: due compartimenti all’interno del lumen delle fibre cave dove il mezzo di coltura fluisce e un compartimento extraluminale dove le cellule sono coltivate. I compartimenti intraluminali ed extraluminale comunicano tra di loro attraverso i pori della parete di membrana. Il mezzo che fluisce nel lumen delle fibre di alimentazione permea nel compartimento cellulare, dove i cataboliti ed i metaboliti prodotti dalle cellule vengono rimossi dalle fibre cave deputate all’allontanamento dei molecole di sintesi e di scarto cellulari. In questo dispositivo le membrane a fibre cave consentono la compartimentalizzazione delle cellule in un microambiente controllato a livello molecolare ed il trasporto selettivo di molecole verso e dal compartimento cellulare proteggendo le cellule da eventuali sforzi di taglio. Inoltre, le membrane, grazie alla loro geometria intrinseca, offrono un'ampia superficie per l'adesione e la crescita delle cellule in un volume ridotto. Epatociti umani rappresentano una fonte cellulare ottimale da utilizzare nelle terapie che sono basate sull’uso di cellule, in quanto riflettono più da vicino le condizioni in vivo. In vivo gli epatociti sono altamente proliferativi all'interno del loro microambiente. Tuttavia, quando sono isolati dal loro microambiente e coltivati in vitro, perdono rapidamente le loro funzioni specifiche. Pertanto, è di importanza fondamentale la realizzazione di modelli in vitro in grado di mantenere gli epatociti vitali e funzionali per lungo tempo. Un aspetto critico è la la scarsa disponibilità di epatociti umani per cui occorre prendere in considerazione fonti cellulari alternative. Gli studi effettuati in questi ultimi anni indicano come una delle migliori fonti cellulari alternativa agli epatociti le cellule staminali, poiché queste cellule sono ampiamente disponibili possiedono in vitro un’elevata capacità proliferativa e possono essere differenziate in epatociti. A differenza delle cellule provenienti da animali e delle linee cellulari, le cellule staminali non costituiscono un rischio di trasmissione virale zoonotica o tumorigenicità. In questo lavoro, il bioreattore a membrana è stato ottimizzato al fine di creare condizioni di coltura per aggregati cellulari come sferoidi e per sistemi organotipici tridimensionali (co-coltura di epatociti e cellule non parenchimali) che garantiscano il mantenimento a lungo termine della funzionalità dei costrutti epatici umani. A tal proposito, le funzioni specifiche epatiche come l'urea, la sintesi dell'albumina e la biotrasformazione di farmaci sono state valutate nel bioreattore. I cambiamenti morfologici cellulari sono stati analizzati utilizzando il microscopio elettronico a scansione ed il microscopio confocale a scansione laser. Inoltre, il consumo di ossigeno delle cellule poste in coltura nel bioreattore è stato continuamente monitorato nel tempo al fine di assicurare un adeguato approvvigionamento di ossigeno. Gli sferoidi epatici umani, posti in coltura nello spazio extracapillare del bioreattore sono andati incontro ad un processo di fusione che ha portato alla formazione di strutture di maggiore dimensione simili a microtessuti. La fusione degli sferoidi è stata osservata sia tra le fibre che intorno alle fibre simulando il processo che avviene in vivo. Questo modello di coltura, grazie alle sue caratteristiche tridimensionali e all'aumentata interazione cellulare, così come avviene in vivo, ha favorito il mantenimento a lungo termine della vitalità e delle diverse funzioni specifiche epatiche come la sintesi di albumina ed urea ed il metabolismo xenobiotico. Allo stesso modo, nel sistema organotipico, le cellule si riorganizzano formando strutture tissutali simili a quelle del tessuto epatico in vivo. Questo è stato reso possibile grazie al piastramento sequenziale sulle membrane di cellule non parenchimali e parenchimali che hanno formato strutture stratificate tridimensionali simili a quelli in vivo. Il bioreattore che è stato ottimizzato in questo lavoro di tesi fornisce un microambiente di coltura ben controllato da un punto di vista molecolare attraverso l'alimentazione continua di sostanze nutritive, di cui una delle più importanti è l'ossigeno, e la rimozione di cataboliti. Ciò è stato confermato dai risultati relativi alla misura della concentrazione di ossigeno nel mezzo di coltura sia nella corrente in ingresso che in uscita dal bioreattore. In entrambi i modelli di coltura, l'approvvigionamento di ossigeno nel bioreattore è risultato essere sufficiente e significativamente maggiore a quello osservato in condizioni di coltura statica. Inoltre, una nuova fonte di cellule staminali, ovvero le cellule staminali mesenchimali derivate dal fegato, è stata utilizzata: le cellule sono state differenziate con successo in epatociti dopo 24 giorni di coltura, sia nel sistema statico che nel bioreattore. Tuttavia, il bioreattore ha mostrato una migliore capacità di mantenere la vitalità delle cellule e di differenziare le cellule staminali mesenchimalinel fenotipo epatico, come dimostrato dall'aumento dell'espressione genica di marcatori epatici specifici (ad es. albumina ed il fattore nucleare epatico alfa-4) e dalle velocità di sintesi di urea e albumina. Il prototipo di bioreattore realizzato su scala di laboratorio ha mantenuto con successo e funzionalmente attivi gli epatociti umani coltivati come sferoidi e in co-coltura con cellule non parenchimali per quasi un mese. Un aspetto importante è stato il differenziamento epatico delle cellule staminali mesenchimali, che rappresentano una potenziale fonte di cellule alternativa agli epatociti umani primari. Tutti questi risultati sono stati ottenuti utilizzando solo cellule umane, che convalidano le prestazioni del dispositivo che è stato sviluppato come sistema epatico bioartificiale da utilizzare in vitro. Questo bioreattore su scala di laboratorio ha un elevato potenziale applicativo cha va dagli studi in vitro delle malattie epatiche agli studi di tossicità a lungo termine. Inoltre, può essere realizzato su scala clinica ed applicato come fegato biartificiale per sostituire le funzioni epatiche di pazienti affetti da insufficienza epatica in attesa di trapianto.
Preparation of mixed matrix membranes for water treatment
(2017-07-11) Grosso, Valentina; Panano, Pietro; Drioli, Enrico; Fontananova, Enrica; Di Profio, Gianluca; Curcio, Efrem; Gabriele, Bartolo
The treatment of wastewater and its reuse is a very important topic in industrial processes. This because not only avoids drawing on natural resources, but also enables a significant reduction in the amount of wastewater discharged into the natural environment. Wastewater can also be used for various purposes where drinking water quality is not mandatory, including agricultural irrigation, the cleaning of industrial equipment, the watering of green spaces, and street maintenance, etc. In fact, the water reuse has become essential in all areas in the world that suffer from water shortages [1]. Different methods are used for wastewater treatment. These processes can be to divide in: primary, secondary and tertiary treatment. Primary treatment (screening, filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, coagulation, gravity and flotation method) includes preliminary purification processes of a physical and chemical nature while secondary treatment deals with the biological treatment of wastewater. In tertiary treatment process wastewater is converted into good quality water that can be used for different types of purpose, i.e. drinking, industrial, medicinal etc. supplies [2]. The complexity of industrial processes, the variety of pollutants and the limitation of a single operation, has led to the need for more complex processes and especially to a combination of processes. Membranes technologies falls on the tertiary water treatment technologies and are actually the most effective separation processes and they are still in rapid development creating new prospects of their applications in clean technologies [3]. The utilization of membrane operations as hybrid systems, i.e. in combination with other conventional techniques or integrated with different membrane operations is considered the way forward for more rationale applications [4]. The possibilities of redesigning various industrial cycles by combining various membrane operations have been studies and in some case realized with a low environmental impact and a low energy consumption [5]. Different processes can be used in various steps of a hybrid system, depending from the size of the pollutants to be removed. Microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) membrane processes, can be used as pre-treatment, while nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) can used in the final step of the integrated system to remove particles with smaller dimensions (Chapter 1) The membranes have different morphological characteristics that affect their performance. The study of all the conditions which modulate these characteristics is a crucial point in the choice of membranes to be used in the various separation processes. Therefore, it is important to investigate about new materials and new types of membranes, like as mixed matrix membrane (MMM). MMM is a heterogeneous membrane consisting of inorganic fillers embedded in a polymeric matrix and can be made into flat sheets and hollow-fiber. Nevertheless, the selection of membrane configuration is greatly dependent on the application and therefore the production of MMMs in useful configuration is undoubtedly a crucial point in membrane development [6]. Also, the selection of inorganic fillers depends of desired membrane performance and their use. More attention was focus on the interesting characteristic of carbonanotubes (CNTs) (chapter 2). CNTs themselves have remarkable electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties. These nanotubes have the structure of a rolled-up graphene sheet with smaller diameter. Multiwalled carbonanotube (MWCNTs) were used to prepare MMMs for wastewater treatment. Different compounds, as additives in the polymeric membranes were used in high percentage; in the case of MWCNTs was observed as a low amount can change the membrane morphologies, mechanical and transport properties. A crucial point was the choice of membrane materials. Two type, hydrophilic poly(imide) (PI) and hydrophobic poly(vinylidenfluoride) (PVDF) were choose for membrane materials to produce MMMs. Another important point in this study was the use of functionalized MWCNTs that provide a good dispersion in the casting solution first, and in the polymeric matrix after phase separation. The main limitation in the use of CNTs is their poor dispersion in the main solvents used for the preparation of membranes. The functionalization has been proven an efficient method to overcome this limitation improving the compatibility with the polymer matrix. The presence of polar groups on the carbon nanotubes can reduces their tendency to aggregate by van der Waals interactions, while forming hydrogen bonds and electron donor/acceptor interactions with the polymer. Low percentages of CNTs were used for the preparation of membranes. These percentages were sufficient to improve better performance to modified membranes. PI was select as polymeric materials because combine easy processability in the form of membranes, with a high chemical and thermal stability, over a wide range of operative conditions. Three different PI polymers were used to prepared porous asymmetric membrane by non-solvent induced phase separation (NIPS): a homopolymer (Matrimid) and two co-polymers (Lenzing P84 and Torlon). The effect of membrane preparation conditions on the membrane morphology and transport properties, were investigate. Moreover, mixed matrix based on co-polyimide P84 and functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes (oxidized and aminated MWCNTs) were prepared. The different polymeric membranes were compared in the rejection of organic dyes, as model of organic pollutant present in wastewater (chapter 3). To investigate about the influence of functional groups on the MWCNTs for their interaction with polymeric matrix, three different type of functionalized MWCNTs (oxidized, amined and aminated) were dispersed also in polymeric hydrophobic PVDF membranes. PVDF was selected as polymeric materials of its outstanding properties: excellent chemical resistance and hydrolytic stability; high mechanical strength and stability over a broad pH range; polymorphism (main crystalline phases are: α, β, γ, δ and ε) [7]. The aim was to tailor the interactions with the polymeric matrix in order to realize high performing composite film with improved performance. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein was select as compound to evaluate the membrane performance. In particular, the antifouling properties and the permeation flux of mixed matrix membranes, were evaluate as well as thermal and structural and mechanical properties (chapter 4).
Reverse electrodialysis for energy recovery: material development and performance evalution
(2018-05-11) Avci, Ahmet Halil; Critelli, Salvatore; Curcio, Efrem
Salinity Gradient Power- Reverse Electrodialysis (SGP-RED), so-called blue energy, is a promising untapped membrane based renewable and sustainable energy generation technology. Salinity gradient energy can be defined as the energy reveals during the mixing of two solution having different concentration. Creating a controlled mixing in a RED stack gives the opportunity to transfer the mixing energy directly to electricity by redox reactions. Alternate arrangement of cation exchange membranes (CEM) and anion exchange membranes (AEM) form the required compartment design for controlled mixing. When high and low concentration solutions are fed from neighboring compartments, electrochemical potential difference of the solutions drive the ions from high to low concentrations. However, only charges opposite to membrane fixed charge can diffuse through, i.e. for an ideal membrane only cations can transport through CEM. Therefore, an ionic flux can be generated inside of the stack. Understanding the fundamentals of the technology and the present challenges of SGP-RED is very important for the evaluation of the experimental study. Therefore, Chapter 1 deals with the theory behind SGP-RED, potential of current state of art and challenges on performance and commercialization. Most of the RED literature investigate RED performance by using artificial solutions that only contains NaCl. In Chapter 2, the effect of real river and seawater solutions (collected from river of Amantea, Italy) is experimentally investigated on lab-scale RED stack prototype. Different flow rates and temperature are studied to find an optimized condition. RED effluents are characterized to have a better understanding on transport mechanisms of monovalent and multivalent ions. Ion characterization results indicate multivalent ions tends to transport against their concentration gradient. Moreover, investigations on electrochemical properties concludes Mg2+ has the most severe effect on RED performance by causing an order of magnitude reduction on CEM conductivity After concluding drastic negative effect of Mg2+ on power generation in the second chapter, Chapter 3 is dedicated to investigate broad range of magnesium content in mixing brine and seawater. Magnesium is known as second most abundant cation in the natural seawater solution and concentration varies from region to region. 0.5 and 4 molal solutions from 0 to 100 % Mg2+ content are tested in RED setup. Ionic characterization of outlet solution is completed to see effect of concentration on transport of ions. It is observed that uphill transport is limited to 0 – 30% of MgCl2. Ohmic and non-ohmic resistance of the CEM and AEM characterized in the test solutions. Resistance characterization reveals that cation exchange membrane resistance is critically affected by Mg2+ concentration while resistance of AEM remains unaffected. Due to RED is a non-commercialized technology, there is no commercial ion exchange membranes designed for RED. Therefore, most of the RED studies investigates electrodialysis (ED) membranes because of the similarity. In Chapter 4, cation exchange membranes are prepared considering the needs of RED. A well-known polymer, polysulfone, is sulfonated by chlorosulfonic acid to obtain negatively charged polymer. After the characterization of the polymer, CEMs are prepared with an asymmetric porous morphology by wet phase inversion method. Phase inversion parameters, e.g. solvent type, co-solvent ratio, are studied to optimize the membrane resistance and permselectivity. Among the prepared membranes, most promising one is further characterized for different NaCl concentration to estimate the power density. The results encourage to consider wet phase inversion method as a fabrication method for CEM. Commercial cation exchange membranes are produced as dense homogeneous membranes by functionalized polymeric materials as standalone or into a support to have a mechanical stability. In Chapter 5, sulfonated polyethersulfone membranes are prepared by wet phase inversion and solvent evaporation method. In solvent evaporation method, polyethersulfone/sulfonated polyethersulfone blend ratio is optimized considering electrochemical and mechanical properties. In wet phase inversion, effect of co-solvent, evaporation time, coagulation bath composition and concentration are studied to optimize the membrane electrochemical properties. Best performing wet phase inversion membrane, solvent evaporation membrane with corresponding ion exchange capacity and a benchmark commercial membrane CMX (Neosepta, Japan) are characterized to estimate RED performance for different solution concentration. Competitive results point out the possibility of CEM production by wet phase inversion Chapter 6 is dedicated to conclude and discuss the achievements of the conducted work. In addition, some outlook for the future works was mentioned based on the deductions of the experimental work
Modelling study of vanadium based alloys and crystalline porous materials for gas separation membranes
(2016-02-26) Borisova Evtimova, Jenny; De Luca, Giorgio; Curcio, Efrem; Molinari, Raffaele
Gas! membrane! separation! is! an! attractive! technology! that! is! often! superior! to! other! more! conventional! procedures! for! separation! of! gaseous! species! in! terms! of! energy! consumption! and! environmental! impact.! A! key! factor! for! membrane! separations! is! the! membrane! itself! with! its! properties,! which! determine! the! overall! performance! of! the! process.! One! essential! membrane! characteristic!is!the!transport!selectivity.!High!separation!factors!are!especially!difficult!to!achieve! for! mixtures! of! light! gases! having! comparable! kinetic! diameters.! Moreover,! high! permeability,! correspondingly! high! solubility! and! diffusivity! in! dense!membranes,! are! crucial! aspects! for! the! performance! and! further! practical! application! of!membrane! devices.! In! this! frame,! the!material! used!as!a!selective!layer!is!determinant.!Therefore,!scientists!devote!immense!efforts!to!the!search! of! optimal! gasBsorbent! combinations,! including! thorough! study! of! existing! structures! and! elaboration!of!new!ones!with!sieving!properties.!The!large!effort!and!time!required!for!preparation! and!experimental!testing!of!materials!impede!the!advancement!of!new!membranes.! In!this!study,!we!propose!procedures!based!on!computational!calculations!and!theoretical!models! that! can!be!used! to!predict! the!behaviour!of! some!of! the!membrane!materials!of! interest! for! gas! separation! applications.! In! particular,! we! focus! on:! i)! bodyBcentred! cubic! VNiTi! alloys! as! novel! materials!for!H2Bselective!dense!membranes!and!ii)!crystalline!porous!materials!that!are!attractive! media!for!separation!of!light!gases!such!as!H2,!O2,!CO,!CO2,!CH4!and!N2.!These!two!types!of!materials! are! treated! using! different! methodologies,! adapted! to! the! needs! of! our! research! objectives! associated!to!each!material.! In!the!case!of!dense!metal!membranes,!the!long!standingBcontroversy!over!occupancy!of!interstitial! hydrogen! in! VBbased! alloys! is! addressed.! The! VBNiBTi! system! is! of! particular! interest! here,! exhibiting!high!H2!permeability!and!improved!mechanical!properties!relative!to!pure!V.!This!work! intends!to!gain!understanding!of!hydrogenBmetal!interactions!as!function!of!alloy!composition!and! thereby!to!optimize!these!new!materials!and!advance!their!development!as!novel!membranes!for! H2! separation.!We! use! a! firstBprinciples! approach! that! gives! insights! into! the! sites! preference! of! hydrogen! and! assesses! the! role! of! Ti! and! Ni! substitutional! solutes! for! the! hydrogen! absorption! affinity.! The!method! based! on!Density! Functional! Theory! requires! no! experimental! input! except! crystal!structure!information.!Furthermore,!it!uses!no!empirical!or!fitting!parameters!in!contrast!to! other!computational!techniques.!Hence!this!approach!provides!an!alternative!way!to!explore!new! metal!alloys!for!H2!separation!membranes.!The!applied!methodology!can!be!used!further!in!highB throughput!calculations!to!screen!various! alloy!compositions.!The!heretoBreported!results!will!be! used!as!guidance!for!tailoring!the!formulation!of!VNiTi!solid!solutions!and!preparation!of!low!cost†! dense!alloy!membranes!in!the!frame!of!other!projects!(e.g.!European!DEMCAMER!project).! Further,! we! explore! how! singleBcomponent! inputs! can! be! used! to! forecast! the! ideal! selectivity! towards! light! gases! of! crystalline! porous!materials,! used! for!membrane! preparation.! Theoretical! models! for! describing! gas! separation! properties! of! zeotype! materials! as! function! of! structural! characteristics!and!operation!conditions!are!proposed.!The!model!parameters!can!be!obtained!as! experimentally!as!well!as!computationally.!To!analyse!the!extent!of!validity!and!limitations!of!the! models,!ideal!selectivities!of!few!crystalline!porous!materials!are!evaluated,!including!widely!used! zeolites!(NaA,!CaA)!and!a!metal!organic!framework!structure!(ZIFB8).!The!results!verified!that!the! theoretical!expressions!could!be!used!for!screening!series!of!zeotype!materials!when!reliable!single! gas!adsorption!data!are!available.!However,!since!the!models!don’t!take!into!account!all!parameters! (namely! related! to! the! membrane! design)! and! mechanisms! involved! in! gas! transport! through! porous!membranes,!their!predictions!should!be!considered!as!values!referring!to!an!ideal!case.!
Renewable energy generation and hydrogen production from concentrated brine by reverse eectrodialysis
(2016-02-26) Tufa, Ramato Ashu; Drioli, Enrico; Curcio, Efrem; Molinari, Raffaele
Salinity Gradient Power-Reverse Electrodialysis (SGP-RE) is among the emerging membrane-based technologies for renewable energy generation. In RE, cation exchange membranes (CEM) and anion exchange membranes (AEMs) are alternatively aligned to create a high concentration compartment (HCC) and low concentration compartment (LCC). When the compartments are feed by a low concentration and high concentration solution, salinity gradient is created which initiates the diffusive flux of ions towards electrodes. Electricity is generated by the redox process occurring at the electrodes. The total voltage generated (open circuit voltage, OCV) is proportional to the number of membrane pairs (cells). One of the challenges pertaining to the Ohmic losses when using very low concentration salt solutions like river water can be reduced by working with highly concentrated brines (Chapter 1). Investigation of the performance of RE under realistic high-salinity conditions is crucial for implementation of RE under natural condition. The most abundant ions in natural waters involve sodium, magnesium, calcium, chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate. Under this condition, the presence of multivalent ions, in particular Mg2+, have a lowering effect on OCV and hence a reduction of power density. This could be attributed to the enhancement of cell resistance in the presence Mg2+ ion resulting in an increase of membrane resistance. The SGP potential and comparable decrease in power density of RE operated with solutions mimicking real brackish water and exhaust brine from a solar pond depicts the pretreatment requirement in RE for better performance (Chapter 2). Seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) is the most widespread technology for fresh water production in many parts of the world. Extensive research have been carried out to tackle the technological challenges coming along with the expansion of SWRO practice with time, specifically the reduction of energy consumption. The integrated application RE in desalination technologies in the logic of process intensification is an interesting approach towards low energy desalination. Simultaneous production of energy and desalted water is possible by hybrid application of Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD) and RE units operated on the retentate stream from a SWRO desalination plant. The use of concentrated brine for energy recovery also leads to Near-Zero Liquid Discharge from desalination systems. This avoids the adverse ecological effect of discharging hypersaline solution into natural water bodies. Thus, integrated application of RE with RO and DCMD for simultaneous water and energy production represent an innovative approach towards low energy desalination and Near-Zero Liquid Discharge paradigm (Chapter 3). The possibilitity to exploit the chemical potential of sulfate wastes by SGP-RE can be a promising alternative renewable energy source. The key challenge remains the property of membrane in sulphate solution. Although the trends in the variation of desirable membrane properties (high permselectivity and low resistance) in Na2SO4 test solutions with varying operating conditions remain similar with that of NaCl test solution, their performance is comparatively low. This has a negative impact on the performance of the RE mainly on the obtained OCV and power density. Hence, design of well optimized and high performance membranes is required for practical applicability of SGP-RE for renewable energy generation from sulfate bearing waste resources (Chapter 4). Ion exchanging membranes (IEMs) are key components in RE. Low resistance and highly permeable ion exchange membranes are required for optimal performance of RE system. For practical applications of RE under real condition, IEMs which are less susceptible to fouling are required. There is a potential risk of fouling (for example, scaling of sparingly soluble salts) of IEM operated in concentrated brine. Operations under real conditions also require feed quality control, as the presence of multivalent ions negatively impact RE performance. The variation in Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Total Hardness (TH) of feed samples may alter the membranes physico-chemical and electrochemical properties. In addition, long term stability of IEMs in concentrated brine govern their life time. Investigation on fouling and stability of IEMS, specifically in concentrated brines, would be essential to set a clear pretreatment requirement for the performance of RE under natural conditions (Chapter 5). For techno-economic optimization and feasibility study of RE, performance of large scale (industrial scale) systems need to be investigated under varying experimental conditions. Comparative assessment of operating conditions like feed concentration, flow velocity and temperature in a small scale RE and large scale RE systems is essential. In general, the trends in OCV and power density for industrial scale operations remain more or less similar to that of membrane based water and energy technologies (based on the difficulties to meet sustainability criteria) helps in identification of technological gaps and strategic solution (Chapter 9). Future research on RE will be focusing on optimal design and development of high performance membrane in hyper-saline solution. This will extend from design of highly permeable and low resistance ion exchange membranes to the development of fouling resistant and stable membrane, particularly in concentrated brine. The relationship between physicochemical membrane properties and fouling tendency under hyper-saline environment need to be assessed. The effect of other multivalent ions in seawater like SO4 2- and Ca2+ on the performance of RE under extreme operating conditions should be clearly outlined. For integrated applications in desalination technologies, for example with DCMD, the risk of scaling and fouling for practical applications should be investigated deeply. Better membranes and module designs are required for membrane desalination systems in general. For efficient application of RE in hydrogen technologies, specifically with APE water electrolysis, development of highly conductive and durable anion selective membranes as well as highly active and stable catalysts in corrosive alkaline environment is of future research interest. Above all, well established technoeconomic evaluations of a standalone and integrated applications of RE is essential in order to evaluate the feasibility of scale-up and commercialization of the technology as a renewable energy source (Chapter 10).
Bio-Hybrid Membrane Process for Food-based Wastewater Valorisation: a pathway to an efficient integrated membrane process design
(2014-11-11) Gebreyohannes, Abaynesh Yihdego; Giorno, Lidietta; Curcio, Efrem; Aimar, Pierre; Vankelecom, Ivo F.J.; Molinari, Raffaele
The food industry is by far the largest potable water consuming industry that releases about 500 million m3 of wastewater per annum with very high organic loading. Simple treatment of this stream using conventional technologies often fails due to cost factors overriding their pollution abating capacity. Hence, recently the focus has been largely centered on valorization through combinatorial recovery of valuable components and reclaiming good quality water using integrated membrane process. Membrane processes practically cover all existing and needed unit operations that are used in wastewater treatment facilities. They often come with advantages like simplicity, modularity, process or product novelty, improved competitiveness, and environmental friendliness. Thus, the main focus of this PhD thesis is development of integrated membrane process comprising microfiltration (MF), forward osmosis (FO), ultrafiltration (UF) and nanofiltration (NF) for valorization of food based wastewater within the logic of zero liquid discharge. As a case study, vegetation wastewater coming from olive oil production was taken. Challenges associated with the treatment of vegetation wastewater are: absence of unique hydraulic or organic loadings, presence of biophenolic compounds, sever membrane fouling and periodic release of large volume of wastewater. Especially presence of biophenolic compounds makes the wastewater detrimental to the environment. However, recovering these phytotoxic compounds can also add economic benefit to the simple treatment since they have interesting bioactivities that can be exploited in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. The first part of the experimental work gives special emphasis on the development of biohybrid membranes used to control membrane fouling during MF. Regardless of 99% TSS removal with rough filtration, continuous MF of vegetation wastewater using 0.4 μm polyethelene membrane over 24 h resulted in continuous flux decline. This is due to sever membrane fouling mainly caused by macromolecules like pectins. To overcome the problem of membrane fouling, biocatalytic membrane reactors with covalently immobilized pectinase were used to develop self-cleaning MF membrane. The biocatalytic membrane with pectinase on its surface gave a 50% higher flux compared to its counterpart inert membrane. This better performance was attributed to simultaneous in-situ degradation of foulants and removal of hydrolysis products from reaction site that overcome enzyme product inhibition. Although the biocatalytic membrane gave a better performance, its fate is disposal once the covalently immobilized enzyme gets deactivated or oversaturated with foulants. To surmount this problem a new class of superparamagnetic biochemical membrane reactor was developed, verified and optimized. This development is novel for its use of superparamagnetic nanoparticles both as support for the immobilized enzyme and as agent to render the membrane magnetized. This reversible immobilization method was designed to facilitate the removal of enzyme during membrane cleaning using an external magnet. Hence PVDF based organic-inorganic (O/I) hybrid membrane was prepared using superparamagnetic nanoparticles (NPSP) as inorganic filler. In parallel, superparamagnetic biocatalytic nanocomposites were prepared by covalently immobilizing pectinase on to the surface of NPSP dispersed in aqueous media. The synergetic magnetic responsiveness of both the O/I hybrid membrane and the biocatalytic particle to an external magnetic field was later on used to physically immobilize the biocatalytic particles on the membrane. This magnetically controlled dynamic layer of biocatalytic particles prevented direct membrane-foulant interaction, allowed in-situ degradation, easy magnetic recovery of the enzyme from the surface of the membrane, use of both membrane and immobilized enzyme over multiple cycles and possibility of fresh enzyme make up. The system gave stable performance over broad range of experimental condition: 0.01-3 mg/mL foulant concentration, 1-9 g per m2 of membrane area bionanocomposites, 5- 45 L/m2.h flux and different filtration temperatures. Under condition of mass transfer rate prevailing reaction rate, the system gave upto 75% reduction in filtration resistance. After optimization of the different operational parameters, it also revealed no visible loss in enzyme activity or overall system performance, when 0.3 mg/mL pectin solution was continuously filtered for over two weeks. In addition, the chemical cleaning stability of the O/I hybrid membrane was studied under accelerated ageing and accelerated fouling conditions. The ageing caused change in the physicochemical characteristics and enhanced fouling propensity of the membrane due to step-by-step degradation of the polymeric coating layer of used NPSP. But 400 ppm NaOCl solution at pH 12 was found compatible; henceforth it was used to clean the membrane. Second major limitation identified during the treatment of vegetation wastewater is presence of large volume of wastewater that comes in short period following the harvest of olive fruit. To alleviate this problem, FO was investigated to concentrate the wastewater. This process is believed to be less energy demanding, suppose that draw solution does need to be regenerated, and with low foul propensity. By operating at 3.7 molal MgCl2 draw solution and 6 cm/s crossflow velocity, single-step FO resulted in an average flux of 5.2 kg/m2.h. and 71% volume concentration factor with almost complete retention of all the pollutants. Moreover, the system gave a stable performance over ten days when operated continuously. After FO, both NF and UF were used to fractionate the recovered biophenols from the concentrate streams of FO. Compared to polymeric UF membrane, ceramic NF gave better flux of 27 kg/m2.h at 200 L/h feed flow rate and 7 bar TMP. Finally, when FO was used as a final polishing step to recover highly concentrated biophenols from permeate of the UF; it gave an average flux of 5 kg/m2.h and VCF of 64%. In conclusion, a great success has been made in tackling the two most important challenges of vegetation wastewater valorisation using the concept of biohybridization and FO. The bioinspired NPSP provides strong evidence that magnetically controlled enzyme immobilization have an immense potential in membrane fouling prevention and paves a potential breakthrough for continuous wastewater filtration. By setting bio-inspired NPSP biocatalytic membrane reactor at the heart, it is possible to successfully use integrated membrane process for continuous valorisation of food based wastewater. In addition to fouling prevention, they open a new horizon for applications in localized biocatalysis to intensify performance in industrial production, processing, environmental remediation or bio-energy generation.

Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'Ambiente - Tesi di Dottorato

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